1. Definition of the four classes (Chāturvarna)

trigunas: At a spiritual level, the universe or all creation is made up of three unseen subtle basic components. These are known as the three subtle basic components namely Sattva, Raja and Tama. In the word ‘triguna’, ‘tri’ stands for three, while ‘guna’ stands for subtle components.

The social system created to assist everyone in society to behave based on their natural temperament, i.e. their constitution, which is composed of the three subtle components (trigunas) and their spiritual evolution is the system of the four classes (varnas). In other words, this system of four classes incorporated in Righteousness (Dharma) is meant to provide guidance on behaviour and spiritual practice (sādhanā) according to one’s potential and requirement, to enable one to experience Bliss.



1.1. Motive (principle) and importance of Hindu class system

Smrutis: The word ‘Smruti’ is used with two meanings. In a broad sense, it refers to all the ancient religious texts that profess Sanatan philosophy, excluding the Vēdic literature of the post-Vedic period. These Holy texts include Pāninī’s Vyaakaran, the Shrautsūtras, Gruhyasutras and Dharmasutras, the Mahābhārat, and the Holy texts by Sages like Manu and Yadnyavalkya. More narrowly, the Smrutis refer to ‘religious (Sanatan) scriptures’.
All the Smrutis are in the form of verses (shlokas) and all their topics are arranged systematically.
A. The creation of the classes, described by authors of the Smrutīs is based on division of labour. This was meant to strike a balance between various societal groups without leading to any rifts between them. In that system of classes rather than the rights and privileges of the different classes, emphasis was laid on the performance of duties.

B. In a family, children generally resemble their parents with regard to the complexion, temperament, intelligence, etc., due to genetics. Based on this, authors of the Smrutis, such as the Sage Manu laid down the rules for constituting the societal pattern. Sage Manu came across different people with qualities required for various tasks in a particular social setup and believed the qualities to be inherited. He then allotted the responsibility of various tasks beneficial to society to each group based on those qualities.

C. Shrīkrushna has said (Shrīmadbhagwadgitā 4:13), ‘चातुर्वर्ण्यं मया सृष्ट्यं गुणकर्मविभागश:।’. This means, ‘I have created the four classes according to components (guna) and actions (karma)’.

D. Shrī Eknaathi Bhāgwat (20.314, 21.209-210) emphasises this point: ‘Each individual is born in a particular class, depending on his potential to practise Spirituality or according to his need for that particular type of spiritual practice. The God’s motive behind establishing this system of four classes was for man to re-enter the Hansa class (the purest class from the purest times, that is, the period preceding even the pure Era of Truth or Satyayuga) after he had fulfilled the obligations of all the four classes. This means that the restrictions of the four classes imposed by God are in fact meant to overcome or transcend the four classes.’

2. Actual spiritual practice according to Hindu class system 

We are born on earth with the sole purpose of undergoing the destiny created by our deeds from previous births and to realise God. Regardless of the destiny we are born with, the class system helps us in accomplishing the goal of God realisation.

A. Spiritual practice means offering whatever one has, unto God. A Shūdra (labourer) should offer his body, as he does not have anything else to offer by the way of service. A Vaishya (businessman) should offer his body and wealth, a Kshatriya (warrior) his body, wealth and life and a Brāhman (priest) his body, wealth, life as well as intellect for the Absolute Truth (God alone is the Absolute Truth).

B. In the present times of Kaliyuga, every person, to whichever class he may belong, becomes a Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra for some time of the day, everyday, as given in the table below.
For some time of the day, every individual is a Brahman when he studies, a Kshatriya when he fights according to the situation, a Vaishya when he earns a livelihood and a Shudra when he does some physical work like cleaning his body during a bath. Hence, every one needs to undertake the spiritual practice of all the four classes for some time each day.

C. The origin of the system of the four classes dates back thousands of years. From then till the present period, nearly 70% of the population has been born of interclass marriages. For this reason too, every one needs to undertake the spiritual practice of all the four classes for at least some time.

D. An individual is born in the class which is conducive to his spiritual progress. Hence, if a Shudra is rich as a result of his merits from previous births, his thinking that, ‘I will practice Spirituality by offering my wealth like a Vaishya,’ is wrong. He must certainly offer his wealth, but according to his class he should also render physical service unto God. As a result of performing the service of both classes, instead of being born in his next birth as a Vaishya, he may directly be born in a Kshatriya or Brahman class.

E. If one undertakes the spiritual practice of one’s class appropriately and completely, then in the next birth, one is born in a higher class. E.g. if in this birth the spiritual practice of a Shudra is completed, then in the next birth he may be born as a Vaishya. Later, being born progressively as a Kshatriya and a Brahman, he may ultimately attain the Final Liberation (Moksha).

It is not possible to undertake spiritual practice for the sake of society (samashti sadhana) without doing individual spiritual practice (vyashti sadhana); hence, to make rapid spiritual progress a seeker should do both. Mainly Brahmans and Kshatriyas can undertake spiritual practice for the sake of society. In case of a Brahman it involves teaching Spirituality to others while for a Kshatriya it is sacrificing even one’s life for the protection of society, should the need arise. 

2.1 Animals and the four classes 

The system of four classes is observed not only in man, but also among flora and fauna. Among animals, the cow and the serpent, who are sāttvik (spiritual purity predominant), belong to the Brahman class while the tiger and lion, who are rājasik (action-passion predominant) in nature, belong to the Kshatriya class. This means that ‘class’ is a state, which is determined by the three components.

3. The determination of class

3.1 Difficulties in the determination of class

One has to be beyond the three components (gunatit) to recognise the qualities and actions of another. Only Saints can do this, but They do not answer such queries and only recommend the appropriate spiritual practice.

3.2 Creation according to the doctrine of evolution 

A. The Shudra: According to the doctrine of evolution, the protection of one’s body is the basic impression in any living being. All are Shudra at birth, because they are born with the impression that ‘I am the body (जन्मात् जायते शूद्र:।).’ It is said that ‘Shudras have no right to study the Vēdas,’ because Shudras (those who are concerned about their bodies) cannot think beyond their bodies and to understand the Vedas, one has to be able to focus on its subtle or spiritual aspects by going beyond the body.

B. The Vaishya: With further evolution, one begins to be concerned with nurturing his family and thus commences some occupation for livelihood, such as agriculture, business, etc.

C. The Kshatriya: With yet further evolution, one begins to develop an affinity for a territory. This leads to the creation of the Kshatriya class. Now the affinity is for the country and not for one’s body, hence patriots sacrifice even their lives for their country.

D. The Brahman: In the final stage of evolution, one becomes curious about God and spiritual knowledge. This leads to the origin of the Brahman class.

3.3 Qualities are more important than the birth

यस्‍य यल्‍लक्षणं प्रोक्‍तं पुंसो वर्णाभिव्‍यंजकम्‌ ।
यदन्‍यत्रापि दृश्‍येत तत्तेनैव विनिर्दिशेत्‌ ।। - श्रीमद्‌भागवत ७.२१.३५

Meaning: An individual should be classified in a particular class irrespective of his birth if he possesses the decisive characteristic of that class. One’s class should be decided considering the holistic picture of the qualities of the class of the person and those of the other classes. - Shrimadbhagwadgita 7.21.35

The Hindu Holy epic, the Mahabharat says that an individual’s class should be determined by birth, but in accordance with his qualities and only if he possesses those qualities should he be considered to belong to that particular class.

Class	Duration of class during the day (%)
	Brahman	Kshatriya	Vaishya	Shudra	Total
Brahman	40	30	20	10	100
Kshatriya	30	40	20	10	100
Vaishya	20	20	40	20	100
Shudra	20	20	20	40	100

Religion In Ancient India

The predominant religion in ancient India was Hinduism. The roots of Hindu religion can be traced back to the Vedic period. Hinduism is believed to be the oldest of major religions and originated in northern India. Early Aryan, or Vedic, culture was the early Hinduism whose interaction with non-Aryan cultures resulted in what we call Classical Hinduism. It is interesting to note that much of ancient, classical and modern Indian culture has been greatly shaped by Hindu thought. 

The Mahabharata and Ramayana, both sacred Hindu texts, served as India's main motivating base for a great deal of literary, artistic and musical creations in subsequent millennia. The Epic Period was a golden era in Indian philosophical thought because of the tolerance of different opinions and teachings. The most popular form of Indian medicine, Ayurveda, was developed by Vedic saints and Jyotish, Hindu astrology, is the most popular form of astrology in India today. Yoga, an internationally-famous system of meditation, is one of six systems of Hindu thought. 

Besides Hinduism, other main religions during ancient India were Buddhism, and Jainism. Buddhism originated in northern India in what is today the state of Bihar. It rapidly gained adherents during the Buddha's lifetime. Up to the 9th century, Indian followers numbered in the hundreds of millions. Buddhism, known in ancient India as Buddha Dharma, originated in northern India in what is today the state of Bihar. It rapidly gained adherents during the Buddha's lifetime. Up to the 9th century, Indian followers numbered in the hundreds of millions. 

There also developed many heterodox religious sects in ancient India. One such sect was Ajivika, founded by Mahavira's rival Goshala Maskariputra. Ajivikas did not believe in karma and thought that the destiny was predetermined and could not be changed. There were also several other religious contemporaries to Buddha and Mahavira during the 6th century B.C. Another preacher of the same period was Pakuda Katyayana, who also taught that the soul was superior to good and evil, thus unchanged or untouched by it. He classified everything into seven categories, i.e. earth, water, fire, air, pleasure, pain and soul, which were eternal. Ajita Kesakambalin, another contemporary of Buddha taught complete materialism. He did not believe in the afterlife and considered death as the final phase of all souls.

Princely States and Provinces In India

The British ruled India with two administrative systems. One was ‘Provinces’ and the other ‘Princely States’. About 60% of the Indian sub-continent's territory were Provinces and 40% were Princely States. Provinces were British territories completely under British control. Princely States were states in British India with local ruler or king with honorary titles like Maharaja, Raja, Maharana, Rana, Nizam, Badshah and other such titles meaning king or ruler in different Indian languages. These rulers were subjected to the British Empire. These two types of administrative systems were the result of the British East India Company's attempt to annex the whole of Indian sub-continent and make it into a British territory.

The British East India Company arrived in India in 1600. They arrived in India for spice trade. India was then world famous for its spices. Some European rulers gave their country citizens charter to trade with the Indian sub-continent. A group of British businessmen got the charter from the British crown to trade with India. These businessmen named their trading company, 'East India Company'. When the representatives of the British East India Company arrived in India, representatives of other Europeans regimes were already trading with the Indian sub-continent. The Portuguese, who arrived in India in 1498 had strong business ties in the spice trade with different rulers in India. The Dutch also had strong business ties with different Indian rulers.

The Indian sub-continent was always a bunch of different entities ruling different parts in India. During the arrival of the British in India, the most dominant empire in the Indian sub-continent was the Moghul Empire. Their capitals were centered in the Delhi-Agra region. The Moghul Empire acted as patrons to many smaller kingdoms all over India. With the collapse of the Moghul Empire, which began in the 18th century, the different rulers became semi-independent and they began searching for other patrons. The British East India Company began playing this status in many ways. The British East India Company, which arrived in India for spice trade found out that the Portuguese and the Dutch had strong holds in the spice trade. They therefore began searching for other trading options in India. They offered the different ruling families in India sophisticated agreements, which gave the British control over the management of the kingdoms, while the Indian rulers were rulers in official titles and spent most of their time having an extravagant life. According to one of the articles in the agreement between the East India Company and the Indian rulers, if the king did not have a son to inherit from him then the kingdom was transferred to the East India Company. The Company saw in the cheap Indian labor force an important factor to control India. Slowly the British began annexing Indian land and making it, East India Company's property. The British also established factories and began using the cheap Indian work force to enrich themselves.

Not all Indian rulers were happy with the British annexation process. Some of the Indian rulers began fighting the British East India Company. Among them were the Marathas in west India, the rulers of Mysore in south India and the Sikhs in north India. The British won in these wars against the local rulers and gave different status to the occupied land. A large part of the land captured from the Marathas by 1803 became part of province named Bombay. The East India Company directly ruled this province through a British representative. While in Mysore, in south India, the East India Company defeated and executed the ruler Tipu Sultan in 1799 and replaced him with another Indian ruling family which became popular among the local Indians. But in general the East India Company's policy was annexation of Indian territories and turning them into British property.

In 1857 a mutiny against the British arose in which, different rulers in India collaborated to defeat the British East India Company. This mutiny did not succeed and the British defeated their unorganized Indian rivals. After this mutiny the British crown took back the charter from the East India Company and began ruling India directly through a Viceroy. The British also stopped the process of annexing Indian territories and came to agreement with different ruling families in the Indian sub-continent which made these families rulers of their kingdoms. These kingdoms were called Princely States. In these Princely States the rulers were responsible for the interior administration of their kingdoms but they were subjected to British general policy. If necessary the British were entitled to interfere in the interior matters of these states. The different Princely States had different agreements with the British. Some even had their own state coins. Some Hindu rulers were titled as Rajas, Maharajas, Ranas etc. The Muslim rulers were titled as Nawab, Nizam and other titles.

When the British gave the Indian sub-continent independence in 1947 there were 562 Princely States. Some of them like Kashmir, Mysore and Hyderabad were as large as England. There were also smaller Princely states like Junagad, Udaipur, Janjira, Aundh and Cochin.

Along with the Princely States there were also 11 Provinces in British India. These Provinces were under direct British control. These Provinces were formerly Indian entities, which the British annexed from the Indian rulers, attached them together and turned them into British Provinces. Among these Provinces were Bombay, Madras, Bengal, Assam and United Provinces.

Bindusara Maurya

Introduction : Bindusara  Maurya was the second Mauryan Emperor. He succeeded to the throne on 298 B.C. His father was Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of Maurya dynasty. The mother of Bindusara was Durdhara, who was one of the wives of Chandragupta. He was born in 320 B.C.

Chanakya, the famous minister of Chandragupta continued to be one of the principal ministers of Bindusara Maurya. Chanakya further extended the extent of Mauryan Empire during the rule of Bindusara Maurya.

Bindusara's Empire:-  Bindusara extended his empire further as far as south Mysore. He conquered sixteen states and extended the empire from sea to sea. The empire included the whole of India except the region of Kalinga (modern Orissa) and the Tamil kingdoms of the south. Kalinga was conquered by Bindusara's son Ashoka.

Early Tamil poets speak of Mauryan chariots thundering across the land, their white pennants brilliant in the sunshine. Bindusara campaigned in the Deccan, extending the Mauryan empire in the peninsula to as far as Mysore. He is said to have conquered 'the land between the two seas', presumably the Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal.

Extent of Empire: The Empire of Bindusara Maurya extended from the eastern sea to the western sea can be explained by the fact that his northern empire was bounded by the eastern sea at Bengal and by the western sea at Saurashtra.

The revolts against Government of Bindusara: The people of Taxila and the mountain people of the North revolted against the rule of Bindusara Maurya. Bindusara commissioned his son Asoka to suppress the rising. The people of Taxila explained to Ashoka that they were not opposed to the king, but they had revolted as a protest against the oppression by “evil ministers.”
Asoka did not faced any difficulty in winning the loyalty of the people of Taxila. Ashoka officially warned his minister and officials against oppressing the people. After consolidating his position in Taxila, Asoka pushed on to the north part of the empire.
The Taxilan revolt was a phase of general revolts against King Bindusara Maurya. However, Bindusara was successful in consolidating his authority by suppressing the revolts.

Foreign relation: Like his father, Bindusara Maurya also maintained the keeping friendly relation with the Greek rulers. The contemporary Greek king had sent Deimachus to the office of the ambassador in the court of Pataliputra.
Bindusara died probably in 272 B.C. after a reign of 30 years.

Conclusion: The father of King Bindusara, Chandragupta Maurya, had left behind a large and extensive kingdom. It was kept intact by his able successor Bindusara. If Chandragupta was the conqueror, Bindusara was the consolidator. The machinery of government left by Chandragupta would cease to function probably if the ruler at the top would fail to provide momentum.
Bindusara had a taste for culture and had a special interest in philosophy. The Buddhist works refer to his patronage to Ajivika saints.
Bindusara is believed to be tolerant to all sects. Saints of various religions visited his court. Asoka might have derived his saintly leanings from these men, who graced the court of his father.

Samudragupta – the greatest ruler of India

Samudragupta was the greatest of the Gupta rulers, the founder of the Guptas empire, the "Indian Napoleon" by virtue of his military exploits, a diplomat and statesman of the first order, an able and efficient administrator, "the prince of poets", (Kaviraj) the protector and defender of the poor and the weak.

The slaughter of the haughty and the arrogant, and a very wise and benevolent monarch. Beside the gold coins, the Allahabad Pillar inscription throws flood of light on the life, ideals and deeds of Samudragupta.

Chandragupta-I was succeeded by his son Samudragupta who became the ruler after subduing his rival Kacha, an obscure prince of the dynasty. He ruled from 335 A.D. to 375 A.D. He was one of the greatest ruler of ancient India.

He ranks with Ashoka, though in fundamentals both differed radically from each other. "While Ashoka" says R.K. Mukerjee," stands for peace and non-violence, Samudragupta for the opposite principle of war and aggression. The one had contempt for conquests, the other had a passion for them".


Samudragupta was one of the greatest warriors of history. His ambition was inspired by becoming "Raja Chakravarti" or a greatest emperor and "Ekrat", undisputed ruler. In the North, he adopted the policy of "Digvijaya" which meant the conquest and annexation of all territories. In the South, his policy was "Dharma Vijaya" which meant conquest but not annexation.

(I) Northern Indian Campaigns

From the "Allahabad Pillar Inscription" we find that the first few years of Samudragupta were spent in waging wars against neighboring countries of Northern and Central India. The Naga Kings were the most powerful kings. The kings like Achyuta of Ahichchhata, Nagasena of Mathura and Ganapati Naga of Padmavati and a prince of the Kota family were defeated by him.

Ahichchhatra was the modem Ramanagara and Bareilly district of Uttar-Pradesh. Nagasena and Ganapati Naga were the Naga princes who ruled over Mathura and Padmavati Gwalior state. A battle was fought at Kausambhi near Allahabad in which all three Naga Kings were killed and the territories of these rulers were annexed to Gupta dominions.

If the "Allahabad Inscription" is to be followed strictly, Samudragupta after defeating these three kings in first "Aryavarta" of Northern. India, he led an expedition in South where he have violently over thrown the nine-kings of Aryavarta or Northern India such as-Achyuta, Balvarman, Chandravarman, Ganapatinaga, Matila, Nandin, Nagadata, Nagasena, Rudradeva and many other neighbouring kings.

All these petty rulers ruled over the territories which were parts of the Upper Gangetic Valley, Central India and Eastern India. Having defeated them, Samudragupta annexed their territories with the Gupta Empire.

Another great war which Samudragupta waged in the North was against the Kota kings probably reigning in Northern Rajputana. The Kotas, like the Nagas were also defeated and their territory incorporated in the Gupta Empire.

Samudragupta is also said to have waged wars against the Indian and foreign tribes inhabiting the North-Western India and the Punjab.

The important kingdoms which he subjugated were the Malavas, Abhiras, Aijunayanas, Kakas, Kharaparikas, Mudrakas, Prarjunas, Sanakanikas etc. (in west) and Davaka, Samatata and Kartripura kingdoms accepted the suzerainty of the Samudragupta.

2. South Campaign

After establishing his authority in the North firmly, Samudragupta paid his attention towards the South. In the Southern campaigns of conquest, he followed the principles of "grahana" or capture of the enemy, "moksha" or liberation and "amigraha" or favoring him by reinstatement in his kingdom.

It is clear that in South India Samudra gupta was satisfied with establishing his authority without annexing any land. It is possible that he thought it unwise to keep such far of lands under his direct control. For the conquest of South, he had to launch a travel of about 300 miles. Samudragupta marched to South India through Sambalpur.

In the South India, he defeated twelve kings who were King-Mahendra of Kosala (which undoubtedly denotes the districts of Bilaspur, Raipur and Sambalpur); Vyaghraraja of Mahakantara (which probably was in the forest region of Jeypore state in Orissa), Mantaraja of Kaurala (this place is not satisfactorily identified.

It is probably Jonpur district in the Central Province); Mahendragiri of Pishtapuram (Pishtapuram is modern Pithapuram in the Godavari district); Svamidatta of Kottura (probably Kothoor in Ganjan District); Damana of Erandapalla (in Vizagapatam district); Vishnugopa of Kanchi (which is Cojeevaram in Madaras); Hastivarman of Vengi (Ellore in Krishna-Godavari district), Nilaraja of Avamukta (probably a small Pallava Kingdom in the vicinity of Kanchi); Ugrasena of Palakka (in Vellore district); Kuvera of Devarashtra (in Vizagapatam district); and Dhananjaya of Kushthalapura (in North Arcot district).

In this way the South­western coast, he turned towards the South-East and reached his capital via Maharashtra and Khandesh.

3. Campaigns Against The Forest Kingdoms

The other region where Samudragupta laid his hand was Atavika or forest kingdoms which spread from the Ghazipur district in Uttar-Pradesh to Jabalpur district in the Madhya Pradesh. The Eran Inscription corroborates these conquests.

He forced another eighteen chiefs to his suzerainty whose kingdoms lay in the forests. This subjugation of the forest Kingdom opened up the line of communication between the North and South.

4. Vassal States

We are told by the "Allahabad Pillar Inscription" that five kingdoms and nine tribal states became his vassals by paying him tribute obeying his orders and offering him homage.

The five kingdoms were-Samatata or South- Eastern Bengal; Davaka or Now gong district of Assam, Kamarupa or Upper-Assam, Nepal and Kartripura (which may be identifiable with Kumaon, Garwal.

5. Extent Of His Empire

The empire of Samudragupta was comprised of the whole of Northern India excluding Kashmir, Western Punjab and Western Rajputana. In this way, his empire extending in North, from Himalaya to Narmada river in the South including the ports of Cambay, Bhroach and Sopara in the Western coast and in the East, from the river Brahmaputra to the Arabian sea in west.

The region comprising Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, a portion of Central provinces, the Vamdhya Rajputana, Gujarat, Sindh and Eastern Punjab constituted in his dominion.

6.  Relations With The Island States Samudragupta's relations with foreign powers can be perceived clearly from the "Allahabad Pillar Inscription". The names of the Kings with whom Samudragupta had relations are mentioned in the inscription were :-

A. "Daivaputra-Sahi-Sahanushahi" i.e., the Kushana Kings of the Western Punjab and Afghanistan, who, probably wanted military assistance from Samudragupta against the Sasanian power.

B. The "Saka-Munandas " who may be identified with the Saka Chiefs of Western Malava and Kathiawar. According to a different view the reference was to the saka Chiefs of Laghman.

C. The "King of Ceylon" who acknowledged his authority. In the Chinese records we find the relations of Samudragupta with Ceylon.

Meghvarna, the king of Ceylon sent two monks to visit Bodh-Gaya and sought the permission of Samudragupta to build a monastery at Bodh-Gaya and he accorded the permission.

D. The "Sarvadvipavasin" or "all other inhabitants of islands" wanted friendship with Samudragupta. Perhaps, this phrase may refer to the islands close to India, the Maldives and Andamans or it may be a reference to South- East Asia.

It is not possible to say what kind of relation the foreign Kings wanted to have with Gupta. But it can be concluded that the weak Kingdoms submitted to the authority of the Guptas, while the strong ones like the Sakas and the Kushanas wanted only diplomatic relations.

7. Asvamedha Yanjna

After the completion of his conquests, Samudragupta performed the "Asvamedha Yanjna " or horse sacrifice. We have come across gold coins which seem to have been struck on that occasion and which were distributed among the Brahmanas as gifts. These coins show a figure of the horse to be sacrificed before an altar and the legend.

"The Maharajadhiraja of irresistible valour having conquered the earth now wins heaven." The reverse of the coins shows the figure of the queen and the legend "Asvamedha Parakramah", "he whose supremacy has been established by the Asvamedha".

There is the stone figure of a horse now in the Lucknow museum which seems to refer to the "Asvamedha Yanjna or horse sacrifice. It has an incomplete Prakrit legend "ddaguttassa deyadhamma."

8. Coins Of Samudragupta

Samudragupta seems to "issued seven different types of gold coins such as -"Standard type", Lyrist-type, "Asvamedha-type". Battle Axe- type, Archer types, Kacha-type and Tiger-type. The Lyrist type coins indicated the great love of Samudragupta for music particularly for "Vina", a musical instrument.

The "Asvamedha-type" coins suggest the religion of Samudragupta. These coins portray Samudragupta performing "Asvamedha-Yanjna" or horse sacrifice. Finally, the Battle Axe Types, Archer type, Kacha-type and Tiger type all indicate the military powers of Samudragupta.

"The unconquered conqueror of unconquered kings". Excepting the Lyrist and tiger-types all other types of coins bear legends which indicate the conquests and military prowess of Samudragupta. The artistic execution of these coins clearly suggests the height attained in the field of art.

Nine Beliefs of Hinduism

Nine Beliefs of Hinduism

Our beliefs determine our thoughts and attitudes about life, which in turn direct our actions. By our actions, we create our destiny. Beliefs about sacred matters--God, soul and cosmos--are essential to one's approach to life. Hindus believe many diverse things, but there are a few bedrock concepts on which most Hindus concur. The following nine beliefs, though not exhaustive, offer a simple summary of Hindu spirituality.

1. Hindus believe in a one, all-pervasive Supreme Being who is both immanent and transcendent, both Creator and Unmanifest Reality.
2. Hindus believe in the divinity of the four Vedas, the world's most ancient scripture, and venerate the Agamas as equally revealed. These primordial hymns are God's word and the bedrock of Sanatana Dharma, the eternal religion.
3. Hindus believe that the universe undergoes endless cycles of creation, preservation and dissolution.
4. Hindus believe in karma, the law of cause and effect by which each individual creates his own destiny by his thoughts, words and deeds.
5. Hindus believe that the soul reincarnates, evolving through many births until all karmas have been resolved, and moksha, liberation from the cycle of rebirth, is attained. Not a single soul will be deprived of this destiny.
6. Hindus believe that divine beings exist in unseen worlds and that temple worship, rituals, sacraments and personal devotionals create a communion with these devas and Gods.
7. Hindus believe that an enlightened master, or satguru, is essential to know the Transcendent Absolute, as are personal discipline, good conduct, purification, pilgrimage, self-inquiry, meditation and surrender in God.
8. Hindus believe that all life is sacred, to be loved and revered, and therefore practice ahimsa, noninjury, in thought, word and deed.
9. Hindus believe that no religion teaches the only way to salvation above all others, but that all genuine paths are facets of God's Light, deserving tolerance and understanding.

Hinduism, the world's oldest religion, has no beginning--it precedes recorded history. It has no human founder. It is a mystical religion, leading the devotee to personally experience the Truth within, finally reaching the pinnacle of consciousness where man and God are one. Hinduism has four main denominations--Saivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism and Smartism

Dharma

Dharma

Hinduism describes dharma as the natural universal laws whose observance enables humans to be contented and happy, and to save himself from degradation and suffering. Dharma is the moral law combined with spiritual discipline that guides one's life. Hindus consider dharma the very foundation of life. It means "that which holds" the people of this world and the whole creation. Dharma is the "law of being" without which things cannot exist.

According to the Scriptures

Dharma refers to the religious ethics as propounded by Hindu gurus in ancient Indian scriptures. Tulsidas, author of Ramcharitmanas, has defined the root of dharma as compassion. This principle was taken up by Lord Buddha in his immortal book of great wisdom, Dhammapada. The Atharva Veda describes dharma symbolically: Prithivim dharmana dhritam, that is, "this world is upheld by dharma". In the epic poem Mahabharata, the Pandavas represent dharma in life and the Kauravas represent adharma.

Good Dharma = Good Karma

Hinduism accepts the concept of reincarnation, and what determines the state of an individual in the next existence is karma which refers to the actions undertaken by the body and the mind. In order to achieve good karma it is important to live life according to dharma, what is right. This involves doing what is right for the individual, the family, the class or caste and also for the universe itself. Dharma is like a cosmic norm and if one goes against the norm it can result in bad karma. So, dharma affects the future according to the karma accumulated. Therefore one's dharmic path in the next life is the one necessary to bring to fruition all the results of past karma.

What Makes You Dharmic?

Anything that helps human being to reach god is dharma and anything that hinders human being from reaching god is adharma. According to the Bhagavat Purana, righteous living or life on a dharmic path has four aspects: austerity (tap), purity (shauch), compassion (daya) and truthfulness (satya); and adharmic or unrighteous life has three vices: pride (ahankar), contact (sangh), and intoxication (madya). The essence of dharma lies in possessing a certain ability, power and spiritual strength. The strength of being dharmic also lies in the unique combination of spiritual brilliance and physical prowess.

The 10 Rules of Dharma

Manusmriti written by the ancient sage Manu, prescribes 10 essential rules for the observance of dharma: Patience (dhriti), forgiveness (kshama), piety or self control (dama), honesty (asteya), sanctity (shauch), control of senses (indraiya-nigrah), reason (dhi), knowledge or learning (vidya), truthfulness (satya) and absence of anger (krodha). Manu further writes, "Non-violence, truth, non-coveting, purity of body and mind, control of senses are the essence of dharma". Therefore dharmic laws govern not only the individual but all in society.

The Purpose of Dharma

The purpose of dharma is not only to attain a union of the soul with the supreme reality, it also suggests a code of conduct that is intended to secure both worldly joys and supreme happiness. Rishi Kanda has defined dharma in Vaisesika as "that confers worldly joys and leads to supreme happiness". Hinduism is the religion that suggests methods for the attainment of the highest ideal and eternal bliss here and now on earth and not somewhere in heaven. For example, it endorses the idea that it is one's dharma to marry, raise a family and provide for that family in whatever way is necessary. The practice of dharma gives an experience of peace, joy, strength and tranquillity within one's self and makes life disciplined.

Karma

Karma

The self-controlled person, moving among objects, with his senses free from attachment and malevolence and brought under his own control, attains tranquility.
~ Bhagavad Gita II.64 


Three Kinds of Karma

According to the ways of life chosen by a person, his karma can be classified into three kinds. The satvik karma, which is without attachment, selfless and for the benefit of others; therajasik karma, which is selfish where the focus is on gains for oneself; and the tamasik karma, which is undertaken without heed to consequences, and is supremely selfish and savage. 

Varna

Varna

Brahmans or Brahmins - the intellectuals and the priestly class who perform religious rituals

Kshatriya (nobles or warriors) - who traditionally had power

Vaishyas (commoners or merchants) - ordinary people who produce, farm, trade and earn a living

Shudras (workers) - who traditionally served the higher classes, including labourers, artists, musicians, and clerks

People in the top three classes are known as 'twice born' because they have been born from the womb and secondly through initiation in which boys receive a sacred thread as a symbol of their high status. Although usually considered an initiation for males it must be noted that there are examples of exceptions to this rule, where females receive this initiation.

The twice born traditionally could go through four stages of life or ashramas. The ashrama system is as follows:

1. Brahmacarya - 'celibate student' stage in which males learned the Veda
2. grihastha - 'householder' in which the twice born male can experience the human purposes (purushartha) of responsibility, wealth, and sexual pleasure
3. Vanaprastha - 'hermit' or 'wilderness dweller' in which the twice born male retires from life in the world to take up pilgrimage and religious observances along with his wife
4. Samnyasa - 'renunciation' in which the twice born gives up the world, takes on a saffron robe or, in some sects, goes naked, with a bowl and a staff to seek moksha (liberation) or develop devotion

Brahman and God

Brahman

Brahman is a Sanskrit word which refers to a transcendent power beyond the universe. As such, it is sometimes translated as 'God' although the two concepts are not identical. Brahman is the power which upholds and supports everything. According to some Hindus this power is identified with the self (atman) while others regard it as distinct from the self.
Most Hindus agree that Brahman pervades everything although they do not worship Brahman. Some Hindus regard a particular deity or deities as manifestations of Brahman.

God

Most Hindus believe in God but what this means varies in different traditions. The Sanskrit words Bhagavan and Ishvaramean 'Lord' or 'God' and indicate an absolute reality who creates, sustains and destroys the universe over and over again. It is too simplistic to define Hinduism as belief in many gods or 'polytheism'. Most Hindus believe in a Supreme God, whose qualities and forms are represented by the multitude of deities which emanate from him. God, being unlimited, can have unlimited forms and expressions.
God can be approached in a number of ways and a devoted person can relate to God as a majestic king, as a parent figure, as a friend, as a child, as a beautiful woman, or even as a ferocious Goddess. Each person can relate to God in a particular form, the ishta devata or desired form of God. Thus, one person might be drawn towards Shiva, another towards Krishna, and another towards Kali. Many Hindus believe that all the different deities are aspects of a single, transcendent power.
In the history of Hinduism, God is conceptualised in different ways, as an all knowing and all pervading spirit, as the creator and force within all beings, their 'inner controller' (antaryamin) and as wholly transcendent. There are two main ideas about Bhagavan or Ishvara:
Bhagavan is an impersonal energy. Ultimately God is beyond language and anything that can be said about God cannot capture the reality. Followers of the Advaita Vedanta tradition (based on the teachings of Adi Shankara) maintain that the soul and God are ultimately identical and liberation is achieved once this has been realised. This teaching is called non-dualism or advaita because it claims there is no distinction between the soul and the ultimate reality.
Bhagavan is a person. God can be understood as a supreme person with qualities of love and compassion towards creatures. On this theistic view the soul remains distinct from the Lord even in liberation. The supreme Lord expresses himself through the many gods and goddesses. The theologian Ramanuja (also in the wider Vedanta tradition as Shankara) makes a distinction between the essence of God and his energies. We can know the energies of God but not his essence. Devotion (bhakti) is the best way to understand God in this teaching.
For convenience Hindus are often classified into the three most popular Hindu denominations, called paramparas in Sanskrit. These paramparas are defined by their attraction to a particular form of God (called ishta or devata):

• Vaishnavas focus on Vishnu and his incarnations (avatara, avatars). The Vaishanavas believe that God incarnates into the world in different forms such as Krishna and Rama in order to restore dharma. This is considered to be the most popular Hindu denomination.
• Shaivas focus on Shiva, particularly in his form of the linga although other forms such as the dancing Shiva are also worshipped. The Shaiva Siddhanta tradition believes that Shiva performs five acts of creation, maintenance, destruction, concealing himself, revealing himself through grace.
• Shaktas focus on the Goddess in her gentle forms such asLakshmi, Parvati, and Sarasvati, or in her ferocious forms such as Durga and Kali.

Purushartha

Hinduism developed a doctrine that life has different goals according to a person's stage of life and position. These goals became codified in the 'goals of a person' or 'human goals', the purusharthas, especially in sacred texts about dharma called 'dharma shastras' of which the 'Laws of Manu' is the most famous. In these texts three goals of life are expressed, namely virtuous living or dharma, profit or worldly success, and pleasure, especially sexual pleasure as a married householder and more broadly aesthetic pleasure. A fourth goal of liberation (moksha) was added at a later date. The purusharthas express an understanding of human nature, that people have different desires and purposes which are all legitimate in their context.
Over the centuries there has been discussion about which goal was most important. Towards the end of the Mahabharata (Shantiparvan 12.167) there is a discussion about the relative importance of the three goals of dharma, profit and pleasure between the Pandava brothers and the wise sage Vidura. Vidura claims that dharma is most important because through it the sages enter the absolute reality, on dharma the universe rests, and through dharma wealth is acquired. One of the brothers, Arjuna, disagrees, claiming that dharma and pleasure rest on profit. Another brother, Bhima, argues for pleasure or desire being the most important goal, as only through desire have the sages attained liberation. This discussion recognises the complexity and varied nature of human purposes and meanings in life.

Hinduism and animals

Hinduism and animals

Because Hinduism is a term that includes many different although related religious ideas, there is no clear single Hindu view on the right way to treat animals, so what follows are generalisations to which there are exceptions.

The doctrine of ahimsa leads Hindus to treat animals well:

• Most Hindus are vegetarian
• No Hindu will eat beef
• Butchery and related jobs are restricted to people of low caste
• Most Hindus believe that non-human animals are inferior to human beings
• Cows are sacred to Hindus
• Some Hindu temples keep sacred animals
• Some Hindu gods have animal characteristics
  a) Ganesh has the head of an elephant
  b) Hanuman takes the form of a monkey

Cows  :- 

The cow is greatly revered by Hindus and is regarded as sacred. Killing cows is banned in India and no Hindu would eat any beef product.

Hinduism and organ donation

Hinduism and organ donation

No religious law prohibits Hindus from donating their organs and tissues.
Life after death is a strong belief of Hindus and is an ongoing process of rebirth. This could be seen as reflecting positively on the concept of organ donation and transplantation.
A minority argument, though, says that if someone donates an organ as intrinsic to the body as a heart, the principle of karma means the recipient will have to return the favor in the donor's next life - which means the donor will have to have a next life. Hindus hope to be liberated from the cycle of rebirth, so this would be a disadvantage. However, most Hindus would view this argument as selfish.

According to Shaunaka Rishi Das of the Oxford Center for Vaishnava and Hindu Studies, most Hindus take the view that after the soul has departed, the body is no more than a machine, and there is nothing to stop the parts being shared with others.

Scripture

Decisions about organ donation and transplantation are left to individuals to make, but there are many references that support the concept of organ donation in Hindu scriptures.
In the list of ten Niyamas (or virtuous acts) in the Hindu scriptures, Daan (or selfless giving) is third, and is held as being very significant within the Hindu faith.
That which sustains is accepted and promoted as Dharma (righteous living). This could also be seen as supporting the idea of organ donation.
But, the only constraint on the idea of organ donation is imposed by the very nature of Dharma.
Every act or intention of anyone should be dharmik. Therefore, it is right to donate organs, only if the act of donating an organ has beneficial results.
In Hindu mythology there are also traditions which support the use of body parts to benefit others.

Scientific papers also form an important part of the Vedas. Sage Sushruta looks at features of organ and limb transplants, and Sage Charaka deals with internal medicine.

Ahimsa

Ahimsa

Ahimsa is one of the ideals of Hinduism. It means that one should avoid harming any living thing, and also avoid the desire to harm any living thing.
Ahimsa is not just non-violence - it means avoiding any harm, whether physical, mental or emotional.
In modern times the strongest proponent of ahimsa was the Indian leader Gandhi, who believed that ahimsa was the highest duty of a human being.

"Ahimsa, non-violence, comes from strength, and the strength is from God, not man. Ahimsa always comes from within."
Gandhi


Gandhi did not equate ahimsa with non-killing - he accepted that killing because it was a person's duty, and doing so in a detached way without anger or selfish motives, would be compatible with ahimsa.

Postscript

Postscript

Hinduism contains some of the earliest writings about peace, as this quote from the Rig Veda shows.

Come together, talk together,
Let our minds be in harmony.
Common be our prayer,
Common be our end,
Common be our purpose,
Common be our deliberations,
Common be our desires,
United be our hearts,
United be our intentions,
Perfect be the union among us.

Rig Veda 10 - 191:2