Princely States and Provinces In India

The British ruled India with two administrative systems. One was ‘Provinces’ and the other ‘Princely States’. About 60% of the Indian sub-continent's territory were Provinces and 40% were Princely States. Provinces were British territories completely under British control. Princely States were states in British India with local ruler or king with honorary titles like Maharaja, Raja, Maharana, Rana, Nizam, Badshah and other such titles meaning king or ruler in different Indian languages. These rulers were subjected to the British Empire. These two types of administrative systems were the result of the British East India Company's attempt to annex the whole of Indian sub-continent and make it into a British territory.

The British East India Company arrived in India in 1600. They arrived in India for spice trade. India was then world famous for its spices. Some European rulers gave their country citizens charter to trade with the Indian sub-continent. A group of British businessmen got the charter from the British crown to trade with India. These businessmen named their trading company, 'East India Company'. When the representatives of the British East India Company arrived in India, representatives of other Europeans regimes were already trading with the Indian sub-continent. The Portuguese, who arrived in India in 1498 had strong business ties in the spice trade with different rulers in India. The Dutch also had strong business ties with different Indian rulers.

The Indian sub-continent was always a bunch of different entities ruling different parts in India. During the arrival of the British in India, the most dominant empire in the Indian sub-continent was the Moghul Empire. Their capitals were centered in the Delhi-Agra region. The Moghul Empire acted as patrons to many smaller kingdoms all over India. With the collapse of the Moghul Empire, which began in the 18th century, the different rulers became semi-independent and they began searching for other patrons. The British East India Company began playing this status in many ways. The British East India Company, which arrived in India for spice trade found out that the Portuguese and the Dutch had strong holds in the spice trade. They therefore began searching for other trading options in India. They offered the different ruling families in India sophisticated agreements, which gave the British control over the management of the kingdoms, while the Indian rulers were rulers in official titles and spent most of their time having an extravagant life. According to one of the articles in the agreement between the East India Company and the Indian rulers, if the king did not have a son to inherit from him then the kingdom was transferred to the East India Company. The Company saw in the cheap Indian labor force an important factor to control India. Slowly the British began annexing Indian land and making it, East India Company's property. The British also established factories and began using the cheap Indian work force to enrich themselves.

Not all Indian rulers were happy with the British annexation process. Some of the Indian rulers began fighting the British East India Company. Among them were the Marathas in west India, the rulers of Mysore in south India and the Sikhs in north India. The British won in these wars against the local rulers and gave different status to the occupied land. A large part of the land captured from the Marathas by 1803 became part of province named Bombay. The East India Company directly ruled this province through a British representative. While in Mysore, in south India, the East India Company defeated and executed the ruler Tipu Sultan in 1799 and replaced him with another Indian ruling family which became popular among the local Indians. But in general the East India Company's policy was annexation of Indian territories and turning them into British property.

In 1857 a mutiny against the British arose in which, different rulers in India collaborated to defeat the British East India Company. This mutiny did not succeed and the British defeated their unorganized Indian rivals. After this mutiny the British crown took back the charter from the East India Company and began ruling India directly through a Viceroy. The British also stopped the process of annexing Indian territories and came to agreement with different ruling families in the Indian sub-continent which made these families rulers of their kingdoms. These kingdoms were called Princely States. In these Princely States the rulers were responsible for the interior administration of their kingdoms but they were subjected to British general policy. If necessary the British were entitled to interfere in the interior matters of these states. The different Princely States had different agreements with the British. Some even had their own state coins. Some Hindu rulers were titled as Rajas, Maharajas, Ranas etc. The Muslim rulers were titled as Nawab, Nizam and other titles.

When the British gave the Indian sub-continent independence in 1947 there were 562 Princely States. Some of them like Kashmir, Mysore and Hyderabad were as large as England. There were also smaller Princely states like Junagad, Udaipur, Janjira, Aundh and Cochin.

Along with the Princely States there were also 11 Provinces in British India. These Provinces were under direct British control. These Provinces were formerly Indian entities, which the British annexed from the Indian rulers, attached them together and turned them into British Provinces. Among these Provinces were Bombay, Madras, Bengal, Assam and United Provinces.

Bindusara Maurya

Introduction : Bindusara  Maurya was the second Mauryan Emperor. He succeeded to the throne on 298 B.C. His father was Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of Maurya dynasty. The mother of Bindusara was Durdhara, who was one of the wives of Chandragupta. He was born in 320 B.C.

Chanakya, the famous minister of Chandragupta continued to be one of the principal ministers of Bindusara Maurya. Chanakya further extended the extent of Mauryan Empire during the rule of Bindusara Maurya.

Bindusara's Empire:-  Bindusara extended his empire further as far as south Mysore. He conquered sixteen states and extended the empire from sea to sea. The empire included the whole of India except the region of Kalinga (modern Orissa) and the Tamil kingdoms of the south. Kalinga was conquered by Bindusara's son Ashoka.

Early Tamil poets speak of Mauryan chariots thundering across the land, their white pennants brilliant in the sunshine. Bindusara campaigned in the Deccan, extending the Mauryan empire in the peninsula to as far as Mysore. He is said to have conquered 'the land between the two seas', presumably the Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal.

Extent of Empire: The Empire of Bindusara Maurya extended from the eastern sea to the western sea can be explained by the fact that his northern empire was bounded by the eastern sea at Bengal and by the western sea at Saurashtra.

The revolts against Government of Bindusara: The people of Taxila and the mountain people of the North revolted against the rule of Bindusara Maurya. Bindusara commissioned his son Asoka to suppress the rising. The people of Taxila explained to Ashoka that they were not opposed to the king, but they had revolted as a protest against the oppression by “evil ministers.”
Asoka did not faced any difficulty in winning the loyalty of the people of Taxila. Ashoka officially warned his minister and officials against oppressing the people. After consolidating his position in Taxila, Asoka pushed on to the north part of the empire.
The Taxilan revolt was a phase of general revolts against King Bindusara Maurya. However, Bindusara was successful in consolidating his authority by suppressing the revolts.

Foreign relation: Like his father, Bindusara Maurya also maintained the keeping friendly relation with the Greek rulers. The contemporary Greek king had sent Deimachus to the office of the ambassador in the court of Pataliputra.
Bindusara died probably in 272 B.C. after a reign of 30 years.

Conclusion: The father of King Bindusara, Chandragupta Maurya, had left behind a large and extensive kingdom. It was kept intact by his able successor Bindusara. If Chandragupta was the conqueror, Bindusara was the consolidator. The machinery of government left by Chandragupta would cease to function probably if the ruler at the top would fail to provide momentum.
Bindusara had a taste for culture and had a special interest in philosophy. The Buddhist works refer to his patronage to Ajivika saints.
Bindusara is believed to be tolerant to all sects. Saints of various religions visited his court. Asoka might have derived his saintly leanings from these men, who graced the court of his father.

Samudragupta – the greatest ruler of India

Samudragupta was the greatest of the Gupta rulers, the founder of the Guptas empire, the "Indian Napoleon" by virtue of his military exploits, a diplomat and statesman of the first order, an able and efficient administrator, "the prince of poets", (Kaviraj) the protector and defender of the poor and the weak.

The slaughter of the haughty and the arrogant, and a very wise and benevolent monarch. Beside the gold coins, the Allahabad Pillar inscription throws flood of light on the life, ideals and deeds of Samudragupta.

Chandragupta-I was succeeded by his son Samudragupta who became the ruler after subduing his rival Kacha, an obscure prince of the dynasty. He ruled from 335 A.D. to 375 A.D. He was one of the greatest ruler of ancient India.

He ranks with Ashoka, though in fundamentals both differed radically from each other. "While Ashoka" says R.K. Mukerjee," stands for peace and non-violence, Samudragupta for the opposite principle of war and aggression. The one had contempt for conquests, the other had a passion for them".


Samudragupta was one of the greatest warriors of history. His ambition was inspired by becoming "Raja Chakravarti" or a greatest emperor and "Ekrat", undisputed ruler. In the North, he adopted the policy of "Digvijaya" which meant the conquest and annexation of all territories. In the South, his policy was "Dharma Vijaya" which meant conquest but not annexation.

(I) Northern Indian Campaigns

From the "Allahabad Pillar Inscription" we find that the first few years of Samudragupta were spent in waging wars against neighboring countries of Northern and Central India. The Naga Kings were the most powerful kings. The kings like Achyuta of Ahichchhata, Nagasena of Mathura and Ganapati Naga of Padmavati and a prince of the Kota family were defeated by him.

Ahichchhatra was the modem Ramanagara and Bareilly district of Uttar-Pradesh. Nagasena and Ganapati Naga were the Naga princes who ruled over Mathura and Padmavati Gwalior state. A battle was fought at Kausambhi near Allahabad in which all three Naga Kings were killed and the territories of these rulers were annexed to Gupta dominions.

If the "Allahabad Inscription" is to be followed strictly, Samudragupta after defeating these three kings in first "Aryavarta" of Northern. India, he led an expedition in South where he have violently over thrown the nine-kings of Aryavarta or Northern India such as-Achyuta, Balvarman, Chandravarman, Ganapatinaga, Matila, Nandin, Nagadata, Nagasena, Rudradeva and many other neighbouring kings.

All these petty rulers ruled over the territories which were parts of the Upper Gangetic Valley, Central India and Eastern India. Having defeated them, Samudragupta annexed their territories with the Gupta Empire.

Another great war which Samudragupta waged in the North was against the Kota kings probably reigning in Northern Rajputana. The Kotas, like the Nagas were also defeated and their territory incorporated in the Gupta Empire.

Samudragupta is also said to have waged wars against the Indian and foreign tribes inhabiting the North-Western India and the Punjab.

The important kingdoms which he subjugated were the Malavas, Abhiras, Aijunayanas, Kakas, Kharaparikas, Mudrakas, Prarjunas, Sanakanikas etc. (in west) and Davaka, Samatata and Kartripura kingdoms accepted the suzerainty of the Samudragupta.

2. South Campaign

After establishing his authority in the North firmly, Samudragupta paid his attention towards the South. In the Southern campaigns of conquest, he followed the principles of "grahana" or capture of the enemy, "moksha" or liberation and "amigraha" or favoring him by reinstatement in his kingdom.

It is clear that in South India Samudra gupta was satisfied with establishing his authority without annexing any land. It is possible that he thought it unwise to keep such far of lands under his direct control. For the conquest of South, he had to launch a travel of about 300 miles. Samudragupta marched to South India through Sambalpur.

In the South India, he defeated twelve kings who were King-Mahendra of Kosala (which undoubtedly denotes the districts of Bilaspur, Raipur and Sambalpur); Vyaghraraja of Mahakantara (which probably was in the forest region of Jeypore state in Orissa), Mantaraja of Kaurala (this place is not satisfactorily identified.

It is probably Jonpur district in the Central Province); Mahendragiri of Pishtapuram (Pishtapuram is modern Pithapuram in the Godavari district); Svamidatta of Kottura (probably Kothoor in Ganjan District); Damana of Erandapalla (in Vizagapatam district); Vishnugopa of Kanchi (which is Cojeevaram in Madaras); Hastivarman of Vengi (Ellore in Krishna-Godavari district), Nilaraja of Avamukta (probably a small Pallava Kingdom in the vicinity of Kanchi); Ugrasena of Palakka (in Vellore district); Kuvera of Devarashtra (in Vizagapatam district); and Dhananjaya of Kushthalapura (in North Arcot district).

In this way the South­western coast, he turned towards the South-East and reached his capital via Maharashtra and Khandesh.

3. Campaigns Against The Forest Kingdoms

The other region where Samudragupta laid his hand was Atavika or forest kingdoms which spread from the Ghazipur district in Uttar-Pradesh to Jabalpur district in the Madhya Pradesh. The Eran Inscription corroborates these conquests.

He forced another eighteen chiefs to his suzerainty whose kingdoms lay in the forests. This subjugation of the forest Kingdom opened up the line of communication between the North and South.

4. Vassal States

We are told by the "Allahabad Pillar Inscription" that five kingdoms and nine tribal states became his vassals by paying him tribute obeying his orders and offering him homage.

The five kingdoms were-Samatata or South- Eastern Bengal; Davaka or Now gong district of Assam, Kamarupa or Upper-Assam, Nepal and Kartripura (which may be identifiable with Kumaon, Garwal.

5. Extent Of His Empire

The empire of Samudragupta was comprised of the whole of Northern India excluding Kashmir, Western Punjab and Western Rajputana. In this way, his empire extending in North, from Himalaya to Narmada river in the South including the ports of Cambay, Bhroach and Sopara in the Western coast and in the East, from the river Brahmaputra to the Arabian sea in west.

The region comprising Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, a portion of Central provinces, the Vamdhya Rajputana, Gujarat, Sindh and Eastern Punjab constituted in his dominion.

6.  Relations With The Island States Samudragupta's relations with foreign powers can be perceived clearly from the "Allahabad Pillar Inscription". The names of the Kings with whom Samudragupta had relations are mentioned in the inscription were :-

A. "Daivaputra-Sahi-Sahanushahi" i.e., the Kushana Kings of the Western Punjab and Afghanistan, who, probably wanted military assistance from Samudragupta against the Sasanian power.

B. The "Saka-Munandas " who may be identified with the Saka Chiefs of Western Malava and Kathiawar. According to a different view the reference was to the saka Chiefs of Laghman.

C. The "King of Ceylon" who acknowledged his authority. In the Chinese records we find the relations of Samudragupta with Ceylon.

Meghvarna, the king of Ceylon sent two monks to visit Bodh-Gaya and sought the permission of Samudragupta to build a monastery at Bodh-Gaya and he accorded the permission.

D. The "Sarvadvipavasin" or "all other inhabitants of islands" wanted friendship with Samudragupta. Perhaps, this phrase may refer to the islands close to India, the Maldives and Andamans or it may be a reference to South- East Asia.

It is not possible to say what kind of relation the foreign Kings wanted to have with Gupta. But it can be concluded that the weak Kingdoms submitted to the authority of the Guptas, while the strong ones like the Sakas and the Kushanas wanted only diplomatic relations.

7. Asvamedha Yanjna

After the completion of his conquests, Samudragupta performed the "Asvamedha Yanjna " or horse sacrifice. We have come across gold coins which seem to have been struck on that occasion and which were distributed among the Brahmanas as gifts. These coins show a figure of the horse to be sacrificed before an altar and the legend.

"The Maharajadhiraja of irresistible valour having conquered the earth now wins heaven." The reverse of the coins shows the figure of the queen and the legend "Asvamedha Parakramah", "he whose supremacy has been established by the Asvamedha".

There is the stone figure of a horse now in the Lucknow museum which seems to refer to the "Asvamedha Yanjna or horse sacrifice. It has an incomplete Prakrit legend "ddaguttassa deyadhamma."

8. Coins Of Samudragupta

Samudragupta seems to "issued seven different types of gold coins such as -"Standard type", Lyrist-type, "Asvamedha-type". Battle Axe- type, Archer types, Kacha-type and Tiger-type. The Lyrist type coins indicated the great love of Samudragupta for music particularly for "Vina", a musical instrument.

The "Asvamedha-type" coins suggest the religion of Samudragupta. These coins portray Samudragupta performing "Asvamedha-Yanjna" or horse sacrifice. Finally, the Battle Axe Types, Archer type, Kacha-type and Tiger type all indicate the military powers of Samudragupta.

"The unconquered conqueror of unconquered kings". Excepting the Lyrist and tiger-types all other types of coins bear legends which indicate the conquests and military prowess of Samudragupta. The artistic execution of these coins clearly suggests the height attained in the field of art.

Nine Beliefs of Hinduism

Nine Beliefs of Hinduism

Our beliefs determine our thoughts and attitudes about life, which in turn direct our actions. By our actions, we create our destiny. Beliefs about sacred matters--God, soul and cosmos--are essential to one's approach to life. Hindus believe many diverse things, but there are a few bedrock concepts on which most Hindus concur. The following nine beliefs, though not exhaustive, offer a simple summary of Hindu spirituality.

1. Hindus believe in a one, all-pervasive Supreme Being who is both immanent and transcendent, both Creator and Unmanifest Reality.
2. Hindus believe in the divinity of the four Vedas, the world's most ancient scripture, and venerate the Agamas as equally revealed. These primordial hymns are God's word and the bedrock of Sanatana Dharma, the eternal religion.
3. Hindus believe that the universe undergoes endless cycles of creation, preservation and dissolution.
4. Hindus believe in karma, the law of cause and effect by which each individual creates his own destiny by his thoughts, words and deeds.
5. Hindus believe that the soul reincarnates, evolving through many births until all karmas have been resolved, and moksha, liberation from the cycle of rebirth, is attained. Not a single soul will be deprived of this destiny.
6. Hindus believe that divine beings exist in unseen worlds and that temple worship, rituals, sacraments and personal devotionals create a communion with these devas and Gods.
7. Hindus believe that an enlightened master, or satguru, is essential to know the Transcendent Absolute, as are personal discipline, good conduct, purification, pilgrimage, self-inquiry, meditation and surrender in God.
8. Hindus believe that all life is sacred, to be loved and revered, and therefore practice ahimsa, noninjury, in thought, word and deed.
9. Hindus believe that no religion teaches the only way to salvation above all others, but that all genuine paths are facets of God's Light, deserving tolerance and understanding.

Hinduism, the world's oldest religion, has no beginning--it precedes recorded history. It has no human founder. It is a mystical religion, leading the devotee to personally experience the Truth within, finally reaching the pinnacle of consciousness where man and God are one. Hinduism has four main denominations--Saivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism and Smartism

Dharma

Dharma

Hinduism describes dharma as the natural universal laws whose observance enables humans to be contented and happy, and to save himself from degradation and suffering. Dharma is the moral law combined with spiritual discipline that guides one's life. Hindus consider dharma the very foundation of life. It means "that which holds" the people of this world and the whole creation. Dharma is the "law of being" without which things cannot exist.

According to the Scriptures

Dharma refers to the religious ethics as propounded by Hindu gurus in ancient Indian scriptures. Tulsidas, author of Ramcharitmanas, has defined the root of dharma as compassion. This principle was taken up by Lord Buddha in his immortal book of great wisdom, Dhammapada. The Atharva Veda describes dharma symbolically: Prithivim dharmana dhritam, that is, "this world is upheld by dharma". In the epic poem Mahabharata, the Pandavas represent dharma in life and the Kauravas represent adharma.

Good Dharma = Good Karma

Hinduism accepts the concept of reincarnation, and what determines the state of an individual in the next existence is karma which refers to the actions undertaken by the body and the mind. In order to achieve good karma it is important to live life according to dharma, what is right. This involves doing what is right for the individual, the family, the class or caste and also for the universe itself. Dharma is like a cosmic norm and if one goes against the norm it can result in bad karma. So, dharma affects the future according to the karma accumulated. Therefore one's dharmic path in the next life is the one necessary to bring to fruition all the results of past karma.

What Makes You Dharmic?

Anything that helps human being to reach god is dharma and anything that hinders human being from reaching god is adharma. According to the Bhagavat Purana, righteous living or life on a dharmic path has four aspects: austerity (tap), purity (shauch), compassion (daya) and truthfulness (satya); and adharmic or unrighteous life has three vices: pride (ahankar), contact (sangh), and intoxication (madya). The essence of dharma lies in possessing a certain ability, power and spiritual strength. The strength of being dharmic also lies in the unique combination of spiritual brilliance and physical prowess.

The 10 Rules of Dharma

Manusmriti written by the ancient sage Manu, prescribes 10 essential rules for the observance of dharma: Patience (dhriti), forgiveness (kshama), piety or self control (dama), honesty (asteya), sanctity (shauch), control of senses (indraiya-nigrah), reason (dhi), knowledge or learning (vidya), truthfulness (satya) and absence of anger (krodha). Manu further writes, "Non-violence, truth, non-coveting, purity of body and mind, control of senses are the essence of dharma". Therefore dharmic laws govern not only the individual but all in society.

The Purpose of Dharma

The purpose of dharma is not only to attain a union of the soul with the supreme reality, it also suggests a code of conduct that is intended to secure both worldly joys and supreme happiness. Rishi Kanda has defined dharma in Vaisesika as "that confers worldly joys and leads to supreme happiness". Hinduism is the religion that suggests methods for the attainment of the highest ideal and eternal bliss here and now on earth and not somewhere in heaven. For example, it endorses the idea that it is one's dharma to marry, raise a family and provide for that family in whatever way is necessary. The practice of dharma gives an experience of peace, joy, strength and tranquillity within one's self and makes life disciplined.